Publications
Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable Societies
The United States Institute of Peace (USIP) has published a report about
media in conflict by Mark Frohardt, Internews Regional Director for Africa,
and Jon Temin, Fulbright Fellow. "Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable
Societies" analyzes the role media sometimes play in instigating or
accelerating conflict. The framework is intended to help media assistance
organizations direct media interventions to where they are most needed
and can be most beneficial in combating the use of media in promoting
conflict.
About the Report
Across the globe, media have been used as tools to inflame grievances
and accelerate the escalation towards violent conflict. In Rwanda radio
was used to lay the groundwork for genocide. In Serbia television was
manipulated to stir ethnic tensions prior to civil war. In the former
Soviet republic of Georgia territorial disputes were exacerbated by the
propagation of nationalist mythology in the media.
In light of this historical evidence, Internews Network, which works
in 47 countries and fosters pluralistic independent media in emerging
democracies and focuses its media development efforts on reducing conflict
within and between countries, undertook an analysis of media abuse by
actors intent on inciting conflict. The resulting framework, published
here, is intended to help media assistance organizations direct media
interventions to where they are most needed and can be most beneficial
in combating the use of media in promoting conflict. It is based on the
belief that robust independent media can play a critical watchdog role
in societies vulnerable to civil conflict, but that the capacity of underdeveloped
media to resist insidious abuse and manipulation is often limited.
The analysis was conducted by Mark Frohardt, Internews Network Regional
Director for Africa, and Jonathan Temin, Internews Network Program Associate.
Briefly
- Conventional media – radio, television and newspapers – usually
play a positive and informative role in society. However, there
are many documented cases of media being manipulated by actors
intent on instigating violent conflict.
- This framework analyzes the role of media in vulnerable societies,
defined as societies highly susceptible to movement towards civil
conflict and/or repressive rule.
- The framework is designed to enable policymakers to identify
societies that may be particularly vulnerable to media abuse
while concurrently informing decisions on the most appropriate
type and timing of media interventions.
- The authors assert that a number of “clues to conflict” can
be observed in the media landscape, clues that suggest a society
is vulnerable to abuse by actors intent on instigating conflict,
or simply that poor journalism may play a role in precipitating
conflict.
- These “clues to conflict” are divided into two categories.
“Structural indicators” concern media outlets, media professionals
or government institutions concerned with media; they can include
media variety and plurality, degree of journalist isolation,
and the legal environment for media. “Content indicators” concern
content designed to create fear (such as a focus on past atrocities
and history of ethnic hatred) or content designed to create a
sense of inevitability and resignation to conflict (such as discrediting
alternatives to conflict).
- In response to the clues to conflict, a number of “opportunities
for intervention” are suggested. These media interventions fall
into three categories: “structural interventions,” such as strengthening
domestic and international journalist networks; “content specific
interventions,” such as issue-oriented training; and “aggressive
interventions,” such as radio and television jamming.
- Early interventions are less expensive and more effective than
later interventions, because by the time media abuse is widespread
there may be little or no recourse.
- Four recommendations to the international community are made:
media in vulnerable societies should be monitored; there should
be greater collaboration between media organizations and conflict
resolution organization; media organizations need to build a
better case for monitoring and early intervention and encourage
appropriate donor support; and a systematic review of media behavior
in vulnerable society should be conducted to enhance the international
community’s understanding of this important dynamic.
Annotated Bibliography
Article 19, Broadcasting Genocide: Censorship, Propaganda & State-Sponsored
Violence in Rwanda 1990-1994 (London: Article 19, 1996)
Thorough account of media behavior prior to genocide, meticulously
researched. Includes quotes from print and electronic media that are
difficult to find elsewhere.
Giga Bokeria, Givi Targamadze and Levan Ramishvili, “Georgian
Media in the 90s: A Step to Liberty,” (Tbilisi: UNDP, 1997)
Thorough analysis of recent history of Georgian media, including
detailed information about media scene and structure. Some discussion
of how media behavior has inflamed ethnic tensions and promoted conflict.
Alan Davis (ed.), Regional
Media in Conflict (PDF) (London: Institute for War and Peace Reporting,
2000)
Includes informative overview with good discussion of incitement
to violence. Chapters include: Ahmed Buric, “The Media War and Peace
in Bosnia”; Giorgo Topouria, “Media and Civil Conflicts in Georgia”;
Khuy Sokhoeun, “The Media as Political Pawns in the Fight for Cambodia”;
and Jannie Bates, “Media in New South Africa.”
Department for International Development, “Working
with the Media in Conflicts and other Emergencies” (PDF) (London:
DFID, 2000)
Includes discussion of areas of media support interest for DFID.
Includes section on appraising independent media assistance.
Alison Des Forges, Leave
None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (New York: Human Rights
Watch, 1999)
Broad account of Rwandan genocide. Section on “Propaganda and Practice”
has strong focus on media and incitement to genocide; particular focus
on Radio Mille Collines.
Richard Fardon and Graham Furniss (eds.), African Broadcast Cultures:
Radio in Transition (Oxford: James Currey Publishers, 2000)
Includes both thematic chapters and case studies; strong focus
on local level. Broad range of contributions, including chapters on Benin,
Niger, Zambia, Rwanda, Sudan and Sierra Leone.
Eytan Gilboa (ed.), Media and Conflict: Framing Issues, Making Policy,
Shaping Opinions (New York: Transnational Publishers Inc., 2002)
Defines “conflict” very broadly – not just armed conflict but trade
wars, etc. Includes wide variety of contributions, including chapters
on South Africa, Sudan, Middle East, Central America and Kosovo.
Francoise Hampson, “Incitement and the Media,” Papers in the Theory
and Practice of Human Rights No 3, Human Rights Centre, University of
Essex, 1993
Focus is on human rights law and media. Provides some evidence
of media abuse and incitement to violence in Former Republic of Yugoslavia,
but not as much as title suggests.
Loretta Hieber, Lifeline Media: Reaching populations in crisis – A guide
to developing media projects in conflict situations (Geneva: Media Action
International, 2001)
Focus is largely on reporting during humanitarian emergencies,
but also discusses design and assessment of media programs. Discusses
conflict between “objective journalism” and “interventionist journalism,”
but argues that they are not mutually exclusive.
Loretta Hieber, “Media
as Intervention: A Report from the Field,” Track Two 7:4, December
1998
Includes overview of role of media in conflict in Rwanda and Northern
Ireland and analysis of NGO work in Rwanda, Burundi and Liberia.
David Hoffman, “Beyond
Public Diplomacy” Foreign Affairs (March/April 2002)
Focus on Middle East and Asia. Analyzes US failure in public diplomacy
juxtaposed against Al Qaeda’s successes.
Ross Howard, “An
Operational Framework for Media and Peacebuilding,” (PDF) (Vancouver:
Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 2002)
Thorough analysis of various stages of conflict and role of media
at each stage. Discusses potential points of media intervention and catalogs
past interventions.
Ross Howard, “Conflict sensitive journalism,” (Copenhagen: International
Media Support and Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 2003)
Argues for “conflict sensitive journalism,” as opposed to conventional
journalism, and analyzes journalism’s unconscious roles. Provides examples
of “traditional reporting” and “conflict sensitive reporting.”
Ross Howard, “Media
and Peacebuilding: Mapping the Possibilities,” (PDF) Institute
for Media, Policy and Civil Society
Defines five stages in “continuum of intervention” ranging from
Stage One (“conventional journalism as we know it”) to Stage Five (“directly
interventionist media programming”).
Goran Hyden, Michael Leslie and Folu F. Ogundimu (eds.), Media
and Democracy in Africa (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002)
Includes chapters on media law, political reform, internet, media
ownership, American reporting and alternative small media.
IMPACS, “The Media
and Peacebuilding: A Roundtable Consultation,” (PDF) (Vancouver:
Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, 1999)
Includes analysis of the “role of the media in a peacebuilding
intervention” and “design and implementation of media interventions in
support of peace.” Also includes a case study of media in the Philippines.
Amadu Wurie Khan, “Journalism & Armed Conflict in Africa: The Civil
War in Sierra Leone,” Review of African Political Economy 78, 1998
Excellent analysis, very detailed. Khan: “The article argues that
while there are instances of overt and calculated bias in reporting of
the civil war [in Sierra Leone], it is very difficult to draw a clear
distinction between ‘intended’ and ‘unintended’ bias.”
Peter Krug and Monroe E. Price, “The
Enabling Environment for Free and Independent Media” (PDF) Paper
prepared by Programme in Comparative Media Law & Policy, Oxford
University, 2000
Not specific to conflict, but excellent analysis of what is needed
for independent media to flourish; conclusions can be applied to pre-
and post-conflict contexts.
Rob Manoff, “Role
Plays: Potential media roles in conflict prevention and management,”
Track Two 7:4, December 1998
Includes list and description of “potential media roles in the
prevention and management of conflict,” including providing an emotional
outlet, encouraging a balance of power, and face saving and consensus
building.
Robert Karl Manoff, “Telling
the Truth to Peoples at Risk: Some Introductory Thoughts on Media & Conflict”
Strong focus on questions of “objective journalism” versus “interventionist
journalism.”
Jamie F. Metzl, “Information Intervention: When Switching Channels Isn’t
Enough,” Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec 1997)
Focus on Rwanda with mention of other instances of media abuse.
Advocates aggressive, UN-led media interventions.
Jamie F. Metzl, “Rwandan Genocide and the International Law of Radio
Jamming” American Journal of International Law 91 (October 1997)
Analysis of legal considerations surrounding radio jamming. Relatively
little focus on Rwanda itself.
Netherlands Association of Journalists, “Report
of a Seminar: ‘The Role of the Media in Conflict Prevention and Peace
Building,’” (PDF) (The Hague: Netherlands Association of Journalists,
2002)
Includes text of three speeches given at conference, working group
findings and recommendations and “key issues and points of debate.” Close
attention paid to media in Middle East, Balkans and Indonesia.
Jimmy Ocitti, “Media
and Democracy in Africa: Mutual Political Bedfellows or Implacable
Arch-foes” (PDF) (Cambridge: Weatherhead Center for International
Affairs, Harvard University, 1999)
Excellent overview of history of media in Africa, particular focus
on history of media repression and state control.
Abiodun Onadipa and David Lord, “African
Media and Conflict,” Conciliation Resources
Good summary of media laws, media history and media harassment
in Africa. Includes contributions from African journalists “in their
own words”
Monroe E. Price and Mark Thompson, eds. Forging Peace: Intervention,
Human Rights and the Management of Media Space (Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 2002)
Includes chapters on Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda,
Kosovo and East Timor. Lengthy analysis of various forms of media interventions
with particular focus on legal issues surrounding media interventions.
Monroe E. Price (ed.), “Restructuring
the Media in Post-Conflict Societies - Four Perspectives: The Experience
of Intergovernmental and Non-Governmental Organizations” (PDF) Background
paper for UNESCO World Press Day conference 2000
Includes case studies of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cambodia, Kosovo and
Rwanda.
Radio Netherlands, “Dossier
on Counteracting Hate Media”
Information on “hate radio” in Burundi, DRC, Rwanda, Middle East,
Europe, Asia and North America. Information on “peace radio” in Burundi,
Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia,
Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and other areas.
Robert Rotberg and Thomas Weiss (eds.), From Massacres to Genocide:
The Media, Public Policy, and Humanitarian Crises (Washington: Brookings
Institution Press, 1996)
Focus on international media coverage of humanitarian emergencies. "Suffering
in Silence: Media Coverage of War and Famine in the Sudan” by Steven
Livingston an interesting analysis of dearth of coverage of Sudan relative
to Somalia.
Mark Thompson, Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina (Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999)
Unparalleled analysis of media behavior prior to and during conflict
in the region. 1999 edition includes important additions, including “The
Captive Mind” by Warren Zimmerman and reviews of earlier editions of
Forging War.
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